There are two basic reasons for the mysteries in the standard model of the universe – and they are due to two wrong assumptions that should be corrected in order to really understand our universe.

The first wrong fundamental assumption about our universe is that Newton’s laws and gravitational constant (only derived from observations in our solar system) are also valid at galactic distances outside our solar system.

The second wrong fundamental assumption is that the observed red shifts of stars show that the stars are receding and that the universe is expanding.

EXTENDED GRAVITY AND DARK MATTER

The first wrong assumption is the implicit belief that Newton’s law of gravity is also valid at cosmic distances. There are no observational proofs for this assumption. In fact when used together with early observations of the motion of groups of galaxies (reported by F. Zwicki), and the motion of stars in spiral galaxies (by V. Rubin), these observations according to Newton’s laws need massive amounts of missing matter, now called Dark Matter, to explain the many observations.

The equations describing the rotation of the stars in spiral galaxies, balancing the gravitational and centrifugal force, result in M*G = r*v*v where M is the central force and G is Newton’s gravitational constant.

In regions where the rotation velocity curves are flat (constant) this requires that either M increases linearly with distance r, or that G increases linearly with distance in the region of constant rotation velocity. The usual assumption is that a linear invisible mass is the explanation for the unusual observations thus leading to a need for massive amounts of dark matter.

Actually my simple extension of the gravitational constant G consisting of an additional term linear in distance, A*r, can explain the observations without needing to search for dark matter. (This is different from the interesting MOND theory of M. Milgrom that involves acceleration.) Note that with this extension of the gravitational constant with large distances, Newton’s laws and Einstein’s General Relativity are still valid in our solar system at the smaller distances. The observed gravitational lenses are also explained without needing dark matter.

TRUE MEANING OF THE RED SHIFT

The second, and more critical, wrong assumption is that the observed red shifts are only due to the Doppler effect and presumably show that the stars with red shifts are receding.

This wrong assumption concerning the causes and meaning of the red shift has resulted in a number of even more serious errors, including the apparent expansion of the universe, the supposed initial inflation, the apparent acceleration of the expansion, and the need for Dark Energy, the wrong age of the universe based upon the Hubble constant, the big bang, Inflation, and the explanation for the Cosmic Microwave Background and its low temperature. A number of Nobel prizes were awarded based upon excellent works that unfortunately were based upon these wrong assumptions.

The red shift initially termed by Hubble as an “… apparent Doppler effect …” is supposed to measure the apparent receding velocity of remote stars, leading to the conclusion that the universe is expanding. This apparent expansion encouraged Einstein to remove his cosmological constant, which he previously had inserted into his equations to support his belief (wish) for a static universe.

Actually, there are three additional contributions to the red shift and they are only due to gravity. The first is for photons leaving large masses. The results are that massive quasars can appear to have large energy output, and transverse (angular, “proper”) velocities greater than the velocity of light. This is because the apparently large distances determined from the red shift make the quasars appear to be further away. This also explains why galaxies that appear to be connected by streams of stars (H. Arp) also show different red shifts indicating large differences in distance (a massive black hole in the further galaxy adding to the red shift).

The second contribution to the red shift is for photons traveling large interstellar distances and is due to gravitational drag by interstellar dust and gas (without collisions or absorption and reemission that would blur images). This is similar to the gravitational drag by our moon on Earth tides causing the moon to lose energy, without needing blurring effects on the photons.

The third contribution is due to the long-range drag by the extended gravitational constant (related to the apparent dark matter), and adds a new logarithmic term, ln(r) as a contribution to the red shift. The logarithmic term arises from the integration of the force with the inverse r term in the extended gravitational constant with respect to distance to determine the loss of photon energy.

The apparent accelerating expansion of the universe is due to the observations that very remote stars are dimmer (and further away) than predicted from their observed red shifts based upon the Hubble linear relation ship between red shift and distance (S. Perlmutter). The result is the apparent need for Dark Energy to power the acceleration.

For very remote stars, determination of distance from red shift and the Hubble constant is no longer linear and should be corrected by the ln(r) contribution for the extreme distances (based upon the integration over distance of the 1/r term in the force described by the extended gravitational constant). This error makes the distance for very remote stars based upon intensity much larger than expected from the assumed linear red shift. The wrong interpretation of distance based upon observed red shifts and distances of very remote stars resulted in the wrong concepts of accelerating expansion, and dark energy to provide the reason for the differences between red shift distance and the light intensity determination.

The cosmic microwave background is caused by the effect of gravity on photons traveling long distances to reduce the photon energy to the microwave range. Gravitational interactions will equilibrate the microwave photon energy to thermal equilibrium with the very low (2.7 K) temperature of interstellar gas and dust. Others have previously calculated the temperature of interstellar space to be in the very low Kelvin range.

The loss of photon energy traveling from very remote stars will shift the wavelength out of the visible range – and this explains Olbers paradox (why the sky is black in spite of the vast number of stars). Further travel will shift the photon energy to the microwave range.

SUMMARY

There is no need to search for dark matter. It is just the result of a wrong assumption.

There is no valid proof that the universe is expanding. This belief is the result of the assumption that the red shift is due to the Doppler effect.

A careful, open minded review of the points raised here could be beneficial to the future progress of the scientific community although the results could be upsetting to many intelligent and productive experts working in this field. The standard model of the universe has too many assumptions to be true. Remember, according to the razor of William of Ockham, simple solutions are preferred.

Sol Aisenberg, Ph.D.

Natick, MA 01760

U.S.A.

508/651-0140

itgplus@earthlink.net

http://inventing-solutions.com